Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines
© 2004 Robert A. Freitas Jr. and Ralph C. Merkle. All Rights Reserved.
Robert A. Freitas Jr., Ralph C. Merkle, Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines, Landes Bioscience, Georgetown, TX, 2004.
List of Figures
Preface
Figure P.1. Lineage of works in the field of nonbiological kinematic self-replicating machines...20
Chapter 1. The Concept of Self-Replicating Machines
Figure 1.1. Vaucanson’s duck...26
Figure 1.2. Dilbert discovers the concept of “replication by proxy”...28
Figure 1.3. Robots made of classical components can make identical copies of themselves and thus self-replicate, but quantum systems cannot...33
Chapter 2. Classical Theory of Machine Replication
Figure 2.1. Schematic of von Neumann kinematic replicator...39
Figure 2.2. Finite state automaton cellular space...41
Figure 2.3. Twenty-nine states of von Neumann’s cellular automata...42
Figure 2.4. Universal construction in the cellular automata model of machine replication...43
Figure 2.5. Universal construction arm builds the memory tape in the cellular automata model of machine replication...44
Figure 2.6. Self-replication of Langton’s SR loop...48
Figure 2.7. BioWall implementation showing genotypic data path and phenotypic representation of Swiss flag...51
Figure 2.8. Typical run of JohnnyVon program with a seed strand of 8 codons and a soup of 80 free codons...53
Figure 2.9. Laing’s self-reproduction by self-inspection...57
Chapter 3. Macroscale Kinematic Machine Replicators
Figure 3.1. Artist’s conception of Moore’s artificial living plant...62
Figure 3.2. Harvesting Moore’s artificial living plants...63
Figure 3.3. A 1-D self-replicating machine made of parts of two kinds...65
Figure 3.4. A double-hook “food” unit for Penrose block replicator...66
Figure 3.5. Activating cam levers for Penrose block replicator...66
Figure 3.6. Four-unit blocking device for Penrose block replicator...67
Figure 3.7. Interdigitating bases for Penrose block replicator...67
Figure 3.8. One replication cycle of the Penrose block replicator...68
Figure 3.9. Physical replication using Jacobson locomotive toy train cars with fixed plan...69
Figure 3.10. Physical replication using Jacobson locomotive toy train cars with replicated plan...70
Figure 3.11. Design of the Morowitz floating electromechanical replicator...71
Figure 3.12. Replication cycle of the floating electromechanical replicator...71
Figure 3.13. “Unmanned” robot factory of Fujitsu Fanuc Ltd., reborn in April 1998...76
Figure 3.14. Fanuc Factory Group: Robot Factory...76
Figure 3.15. Production mini-plants and assembly plant for production mini-plants...79
Figure 3.16. Hall’s “utility fog” foglets...81
Figure 3.17. Michael’s Fractal Robots...82
Figure 3.18. Bishop’s XY Active Cell and Cell Aggregate...84
Figure 3.19. “Replicating swarm” of Globus et al...84
Figure 3.20. Bishop’s proposed “Overtool” would assemble individual KCA cells from more primitive parts...85
Figure 3.21. Yim’s (A) PolyPod multirobot automaton and (B) PolyBot multirobot automaton in snake mode...86
Figure 3.22. Yim’s PolyBot multirobot automaton reconfigures itself from loop to snake to spider mode...87
Figure 3.23. A Telecube G2 module fully contracted...88
Figure 3.24. Telecube configurations and lattice movement...88
Figure 3.25. CONRO multirobot system (20 modules making two hexapods)...89
Figure 3.26. Distributed self-reconfiguration of 3-D homogeneous modular structure...90
Figure 3.27. Modular self-reconfigurable robot M-TRAN (Modular TRANSformer) changes its shape from a crawler to a four-legged walking robot...91
Figure 3.28. I-Cubes: A modular self-reconfiguring robotic system...92
Figure 3.29. Computer-controlled LEGO® car factory made entirely from LEGO® components...93
Figure 3.30. A moment in the life of the Robot Jurassic Park...95
Figure 3.31. Automated space manufacturing facility for the processing of nonterrestrial materials...98
Figure 3.32. Schematic of a laboratory mass spectrometer, the theoretical basis for Taylor’s proposed Santa Claus Machine...99
Figure 3.33. Project Daedalus interstellar flyby probe, modified to carry a self-replicating seed payload...102
Figure 3.34. A modern machine shop, in the hands of competent human operators, can replicate itself...104
Figure 3.35. Comparison of “linear” and “exponentiating” (self-replicating) manufacturing systems...109
Figure 3.36. 1980 NASA Summer Study theme art...110
Figure 3.37. Schematic of simple robot self-replication...113
Figure 3.38. Proposed robot replication feasibility demonstration...114
Figure 3.39. Flexible scheduling of self-replicating lunar factory operational phases...116
Figure 3.40. Functional schematic of unit replication factory...117
Figure 3.41. Unit replication factory stationary “universal constructor”...118
Figure 3.42. Unit replication factory mobile “universal constructor”...119
Figure 3.43. Unit replication lunar factory...120
Figure 3.44. Possible growth plan with simultaneous replica construction of a field of lunar factories...121
Figure 3.45. Functional schematic of unit growth factory...122
Figure 3.46. Unit growth factory chemical processing sector...123
Figure 3.47. Unit growth factory parts fabrication sector...124
Figure 3.48. Unit growth factory assembly sector...125
Figure 3.49. Unit growth lunar factory...126
Figure 3.50. Schematic of Freitas atomic separator replicator...127
Figure 3.51. Atomic separator with power and radiator systems deployed in lunar orbit...128
Figure 3.52. A field of constructed solar cells with auxons laying track in foreground...129
Figure 3.53. Carbothermic element separation cycle for Lackner-Wendt auxons...130
Figure 3.54. Plan view of a system comprising a self-reproducing fundamental fabricating machine...131
Figure
3.55. Lohn monotype electromechanical replicator: a single-type component
and two-component seed unit...140
Figure
3.56. Lohn monotype electromechanical replicator: self-assembly steps...141
Figure 3.57. Lohn polytype electromechanical replicator: two component types comprise a single seed unit...142
Figure 3.58. Lohn polytype electromechanical replicator: self-assembly steps...143
Figure 3.59. Moses’ “basic component” for self-replicating construction machine...144
Figure 3.60. Moses’ component assemblies for self-replicating construction machine...145
Figure 3.61. Functionality matrix for the component set used in the Moses self-replicating construction machine...146
Figure 3.62. Moses’ self-replicating construction machine...147
Figure 3.63. Actual physical implementation of Moses’ self-replicating construction machine...148
Figure 3.64. 3D Systems’ ThermoJet 3-D printer allows CAD designers to quickly print a 3-dimensional model to 50-100 micron resolution...151
Figure 3.65. GOLEM Project uses robotic system to automatically design and manufacture new robots...152
Figure 3.66. An inkjet printed thermal actuator...154
Figure 3.67. The 3-D gadget printer...154
Figure 3.68. A 3-D resin-sculpted bull the size of a red blood cell...157
Figure 3.69. Self-sustaining system of mobile robots...158
Figure 3.70. Robots capable of mutual repair...159
Figure 3.71. LEGO®-based teleoperated kinematic replicator: Prototype 1...162
Figure 3.72. LEGO®-based teleoperated kinematic replicator: Robot 1...164
Figure 3.73. LEGO®-based teleoperated kinematic replicator: Robot 2...166
Figure 3.74. LEGO®-based teleoperated kinematic replicator: Robot 3...167
Figure 3.75. LEGO®-based teleoperated kinematic replicator: Robot 4...168
Figure 3.76. LEGO®-based fully-autonomous kinematic replicator...171 (and caption)
Figure 3.77. Architecture for self-replication...174
Figure 3.78. Depiction of the functioning lunar self-replicating factory...174
Figure 3.79. KCA unit cell with some tabs and sensors...180
Figure 3.80. Wang-tile implementations of an op-amp and a NAND gate, using KCA cells configured as electronic wire/transistor components...181 (and caption)
Figure 3.81. Two steps among many, in a lengthy parts assembly operation involving KCA cells on a base plane platform...181
Figure 3.82. Robosphere 2002 workshop on self-sustaining robotic ecologies...182
Figure 3.83. Cellular automaton representation of Griffith linear templating replication...185
Figure 3.84. Logical scheme and replication cycle of Griffith self-replicating wire...187
Figure 3.85. Effective rule table for Griffith self-replicating wire...188
Figure 3.86. Tiling scheme for Griffith self-replicating wire...189
Figure 3.87. Physical implementation of Griffith self-replicating wire...190
Figure 3.88. Types of mobile robots at the SRRLF...191
Figure 3.89. Perspective view of possible motions of robots and gantries on the SRRLF factory floor...191
Figure 3.90. Functional flowchart of the SRRLF factory in operation...192
Figure 3.91. SRRLF replication pattern across the lunar surface...193
Chapter 4. Microscale and Molecular Kinematic Machine Replicators
Figure 4.1. Clarification of one important aspect of the replicator design space...195
Figure 4.2. Top view of a self-assembled G^C rosette nanotube conjugated to benzo-18-crown-6...200
Figure 4.3. Structure of 1.7-kilobase single-stranded nanoscale self-folding DNA octahedron...203
Figure 4.4. Self-assembly of parts using sequential random bin-picking...206
Figure 4.5. Griffith’s mechanical allosteric enzyme...207
Figure 4.6. Rebek’s self-complementary autocatalytic self-replicating molecules...210
Figure 4.7. The ribosome acts as a programmable nanoscale assembler of protein nanoproducts...212
Figure 4.8. General 3-D topography of the bacterial ribosome: side and bottom views of the small 30S subunit, the large 50S subunit, and the complete 70S ribosome unit...213
Figure 4.9. Nucleotide base layout and 3-D folded structure of the 23S rRNA and the 5S rRNA, comprising the large 50S subunit...214
Figure 4.10. Nucleotide base layout and 3-D folded structure of the 16S rRNA, comprising the small 30S subunit...215
Figure 4.11. Cycle of positional assembly for the ribosome...216
Figure 4.12. Schematic image of mouse prion domain PrP(121-321)...219
Figure 4.13. Viroid 3-dimensional structure...220
Figure 4.14. Schematic of viroid replication...220
Figure 4.15. T4 bacteriophage virus...223
Figure 4.16. Self-assembly of bacteriophage T4 in ordered sequence from its individual component parts...223
Figure 4.17. Virus replication strategies...224
Figure 4.18. Rod-shaped E. coli bacteria undergoing cell division...226
Figure 4.19. Schematic of plasmid replication...228
Figure 4.20. The eukaryotic cell cycle...229
Figure 4.21. Schematic representation of the phases of eukaryotic mitosis...230
Figure 4.22. Schematic of mitochondrial replication...232
Figure 4.23. A mechanical DNA-based actuator...240
Figure 4.24. One half-cycle of Yurke’s DNA-based actuator...242
Figure 4.25. Using reversible complementary linkers to actuate linear DNA-based strut in discrete steps...242
Figure 4.26. Theoretical proposal to combine biomolecular motor molecules and artificial DNA structures with carbon nanotubes...243
Figure 4.27. Self-assembled protein/nucleic acid molecular camshaft, in 3-lobe and 2-lobe versions...244
Figure 4.28. Laing molecular tapeworms...255
Figure 4.29. Cross-section of a stiff molecular manipulator arm, with identification of parts; image of Fine Motion Control; image of ribosome...258
Figure 4.30. Drexler extruding tube assembler...260
Figure 4.31. Drexler factory replicator...262
Figure 4.32. Drexler’s exemplar architecture for convergent assembly...263
Figure 4.33. Merkle’s exemplar architecture for convergent assembly used in Drexler’s desktop molecular manufacturing appliance...264
Figure 4.34. A molecular sorting rotor for the selective importation of molecular feedstock...266
Figure 4.35. Schematic diagrams of mill-style reactive encounter mechanisms...266
Figure 4.36. Schematic diagram of a staged cascade molecular sortation process, based on molecular sorting rotors...269
Figure 4.37. Schematic drawing of the Merkle cased hydrocarbon assembler...270
Figure 4.38. Schematic illustration of the extruding brick geometry for a molecular assembler...273
Figure 4.39. A ratchet mechanism driven by a pair of pressure-threshold actuators...275
Figure 4.40. A positioning mechanism based on the Stewart platform...276
Figure 4.41. Merkle replicating brick assembler...277
Figure 4.42. Physical device specifications for Merkle-Freitas hydrocarbon molecular assembler...280
Figure 4.43. Replication cycle of Merkle-Freitas assembler...282
Figure 4.44. Schematic of the broadcast architecture for control...283
Figure 4.45. Schematic view of Merkle-Freitas assembler subsystems...285
Figure 4.46. Rotary assembler...290
Figure 4.47. A motile parts-assembly robot in Hall factory replicator...292
Figure 4.48. Rectangular 3-dimensional framework for parts assembly in Hall factory replicator...292
Figure 4.49. Parts fabricator in Hall factory replicator...293
Figure 4.50. A detailed view of the wrist assembly of the parts fabricator in the Hall factory replicator...293
Figure 4.51. System diagram for the bootstrap path of a self-replicating manufacturing system...294
Figure 4.52. Basic two-component RotapodTM assembly station...295
Figure 4.53. Sequence of RotapodTM assembly operations necessary for the first station to assemble the second...296
Figure 4.54. Result of five generations of RotapodTM exponential assembly operations...297
Figure 4.55. Crude schematic of the fabrication device and assembly device in the Freitas biphase assembler system...299
Figure 4.56. Nanofactory workstation grid...302
Figure 4.57. The reliable basic production module...302
Figure 4.58. Convergent assembly fractal gathering stages...303
Figure 4.59. Casing and final assembly stage of nanofactory layout...304
Chapter 5. Issues in Kinematic Machine Replication Engineering
Figure 5.1. The complete MAP survival space...312
Figure 5.2. The POE taxonomy of bio-inspired systems...316
Figure 5.3. Taylor’s “Categorization of Reproducers”...317
Figure 5.4. Block diagram of the Suthakorn-Chirikjian categorization of self-replicating robots...320
Figure 5.5. The multidimensional Freitas-Merkle kinematic replicator design space...322
Figure 5.6. The 1/4-power law for replication time as a function of replicator mass, for biological replicators...368
Figure 5.7. Generalized closure engineering design cycles...379
Figure 5.8. Millipede concept of IBM Zurich Research Laboratory...383
Figure 5.9. Successive generations of Fibonacci’s rabbits...387
Figure 5.10. Tree diagram of generation-limited replication for hreplica = 2, G = 3...394
Figure 5.11. Growth plan overview of a field of self-replicating factories on a planetary surface...395
Figure 5.12. Limits to exponential and polynomial expansion of self-replicating interstellar probe populations dispersing throughout the galactic disk...396
Figure 5.13. Cycles in the population dynamics of the snowshoe hare and its predator the Canadian lynx...398
Figure 5.14. Progression of assembly modules in convergent assembly, with schematic showing positioning of all modules...400
Figure 5.15. Geometry for a convergent-assembly nanofactory system with a one-fourth power scaling law...405
Appendix B. Design Notes on Some Aspects of the Merkle-Freitas
Molecular Assembler
Figure B.1. Assembler wall dimensions: side view and top view...457
Figure B.2. Pressure bands for power and control...465
Last updated on 1 August 2005